Interview Questions for Music Theory and Ear Training

Three common types of musical scales are major, minor, and harmonic minor. Each possesses a unique character defined by the arrangement of its intervals (the distance between notes).

• Major Scale: Characterized by a bright, cheerful sound. Its formula is comprised of whole (W) and half (H) steps: W-W-H-W-W-W-H. Think of the familiar “Do-Re-Mi” from The Sound of Music – that’s a major scale. The major scale’s construction creates a feeling of stability and resolution.
• Natural Minor Scale: This scale sounds relatively somber compared to a major scale. Its formula is W-H-W-W-H-W-W, which creates a slightly darker or more melancholic feeling than a major scale. Think of many traditional folk tunes; many utilize the minor scale to express a more pensive mood.
• Harmonic Minor Scale: A variation of the natural minor scale, it adds a heightened note (a major third) in the seventh degree. This creates a more dramatic and sometimes dissonant feel, leading to a strong pull towards the tonic (the starting note). The augmented second between the sixth and seventh degree adds tension, making it a popular choice for composers who want to build intensity.

Understanding these scales is crucial for composing and improvising, as they form the foundation for many melodies and harmonies.

The difference between major and minor keys lies primarily in the third degree of the scale. A major key has a major third (four half steps) between the tonic and third degree, while a minor key has a minor third (three half steps). This seemingly small difference dramatically alters the emotional character of a piece.

Major keys are generally perceived as bright, happy, and uplifting. Minor keys, conversely, tend to sound sad, melancholic, or serious. This is because the major third creates a sense of stability and resolution, while the minor third introduces a degree of tension and instability, needing resolution to the tonic.

For example, C major and C minor both start on the same note, C, but their character is worlds apart due to the different placement of the third degree (E in C major, Eb in C minor).

The fundamental elements of harmony are chords and their relationships to each other. Harmony involves combining multiple notes simultaneously to create a richer sonic texture than a single melody. These elements work together to create a cohesive and meaningful musical experience.

• Chords: These are three or more notes played simultaneously. They form the building blocks of harmony, each having its own unique sound and function.
• Chord Progression: This refers to the order in which chords are played. Different progressions create distinct moods and emotions. The relationships between chords – their intervals, and how they lead to or resolve from each other – determine the harmonic function.
• Chord Function: Each chord has a specific role within a harmonic context. For instance, a tonic chord (I) provides stability, while a dominant chord (V) creates tension and leads to the tonic. Understanding chord function is critical for composing and analyzing music.
• Voice Leading: This aspect of harmony concerns the smooth and logical movement of individual notes between chords, avoiding awkward leaps or dissonances. It’s about making the harmonic movement sound natural and pleasing to the ear.

Think of harmony as a conversation between different chords. Each chord has something to say, and the way they interact determines the overall message of the musical passage.

A dominant seventh chord is a chord that strongly implies resolution to the tonic chord. It’s built on the fifth degree of the scale and contains a characteristic major third, perfect fifth, and minor seventh. This minor seventh interval creates tension, strongly pulling toward resolution.

Its function is primarily to create a strong sense of expectation and anticipation, leading the listener’s ear towards the resolution on the tonic. In the key of C major, the dominant seventh chord is G7 (G-B-D-F). The F, being the minor seventh, creates the pull towards the tonic C major chord.

In a standard progression, the dominant seventh chord almost always precedes the tonic, resolving the tension and bringing a sense of closure. This creates a satisfying and predictable harmonic framework for many musical pieces. Its use is ubiquitous across many musical genres.

To identify the interval between two notes, we need the notes themselves. Let’s assume we have C and G. We can find the interval by counting the number of letter names between them, including the starting note:

1. C

2. D

3. E

4. F

5. G

There are five letter names; hence the interval is a perfect fifth. The interval quality (perfect, major, minor, augmented, diminished) is determined by the specific notes and their relationship within a diatonic scale.

Another example: C and Eb. We have C, D, Eb. This is a minor third.

Identifying intervals is a fundamental skill in music theory and ear training, crucial for understanding chord construction, melody analysis, and composition.

I cannot actually *hear* and transcribe a melodic phrase in this text-based format. Aural dictation requires real-time auditory input. However, I can demonstrate the process. Let’s say I heard a short melody:

Imagine you hear a simple melody. To transcribe it, you would:

1. Identify the pitch of each note: Determine the letter name (A, B, C, etc.) of each note in the melody relative to a reference pitch (e.g., the lowest note).
2. Determine the rhythm of each note: Notate the duration of each note (whole, half, quarter, eighth notes, etc.).
3. Write down the notes and their rhythms: Using standard musical notation, write the melody on a staff. Include clef, key signature, and time signature if possible.

For example, a simple melody might be transcribed as: C4 - D4 - E4 - C4 (quarter notes). This representation would need further notation (like a clef, time signature, key signature and note values) for a complete transcription but shows the basic process.

Common types of melodic intervals include seconds, thirds, fourths, fifths, sixths, sevenths, and octaves. Each can be further categorized by quality: major, minor, perfect, augmented, or diminished.

• Seconds: The interval between two adjacent notes on the scale (e.g., C to D is a major second, C to Db is a minor second).
• Thirds: Two notes with one note in between (e.g., C to E is a major third, C to Eb is a minor third).
• Fourths: Three notes between (e.g., C to F is a perfect fourth).
• Fifths: Four notes between (e.g., C to G is a perfect fifth).
• Sixths: Five notes between.
• Sevenths: Six notes between.
• Octaves: Seven notes between (e.g., C to C is a perfect octave). This interval represents the same pitch an octave higher or lower.

The quality of the interval impacts the melodic character. Major intervals sound brighter, while minor intervals sound more somber. Perfect intervals provide a sense of stability, while augmented and diminished intervals add tension and dissonance.

Cadences are the resting places in music, similar to punctuation marks in writing. They signal the end of a phrase or section, creating a sense of closure or expectation. They are primarily defined by the harmonic progression, specifically the movement of chords.

• Perfect Authentic Cadence (PAC): This is the most conclusive cadence, typically consisting of a dominant chord (V) resolving to a tonic chord (I). Think of it as a full stop. Example: In C major, a G major chord (V) moving to a C major chord (I).

• Imperfect Authentic Cadence (IAC): Similar to a PAC, but the final chord isn’t always a tonic chord. It could resolve to another chord that creates a sense of temporary closure, leaving the listener wanting more. This might be a relative major or minor.

• Plagal Cadence (Amen Cadence): This cadence moves from a subdominant chord (IV) to a tonic chord (I). It’s often heard in hymns and choral music, giving a feeling of gentle resolution. Think of the ‘Amen’ in a hymn – often the IV-I progression.

• Deceptive Cadence: This creates a feeling of false resolution. It begins like a PAC, with a dominant chord (V), but unexpectedly resolves to a chord other than the tonic (I), usually the vi chord. This adds surprise and tension, keeping the listener engaged.

Understanding cadences is crucial for composing and analyzing music, as they dictate the overall structure and emotional impact of a piece. A skilled composer uses a variety of cadences to create a compelling and varied musical narrative.

Counterpoint is the art of combining independent melodic lines that sound pleasing together. Different types of counterpoint are categorized by their complexity and the relationship between the voices.

• Two-Part Counterpoint: The simplest form, involving two independent melodic lines. Rules govern aspects such as voice leading (how the notes move smoothly), intervallic relationships, and avoiding parallel octaves or fifths.

• Three-Part Counterpoint: Adds a third independent melodic line, increasing complexity. Careful consideration of voice leading and harmonic relationships becomes even more critical.

• Four-Part Counterpoint: Common in choral and orchestral music, this involves four independent lines. The harmonic possibilities increase significantly, requiring advanced understanding of voice leading and harmony.

• Strict Counterpoint: Adheres strictly to rules, often involving specific contrapuntal techniques such as imitation (one voice echoing another) or canon (one voice exactly mirroring another). This is often found in Baroque music.

• Free Counterpoint: Allows for more freedom and flexibility, often incorporating elements of both strict and more improvisational counterpoint. This is more common in later musical periods.

Mastering counterpoint requires years of study and practice. It’s a crucial skill for composers, arrangers, and musicians to create rich, textured musical works.

Roman numeral analysis provides a concise way to describe chord progressions using Roman numerals to represent the chords relative to the key. For example, I represents the tonic, V represents the dominant, and so on.

To analyze a given progression, we first need to establish the key. Let’s take the example progression: I - V - vi - IV - I. If this is in C major, the analysis would be:

• I: C major

• V: G major

• vi: A minor

• IV: F major

• I: C major

This progression is quite common and pleasing to the ear. The same Roman numeral analysis could apply to other major keys, only changing the root note. If the key were A major, the progression would be A major, E major, F# minor, D major, A major.

Analyzing a chord progression this way allows us to see the underlying harmonic structure regardless of the specific key and easily compare and contrast different progressions.

Modulation is the process of changing from one key to another within a musical composition. It’s like shifting gears in a car, smoothly changing the harmonic landscape.

Modulation is achieved through several techniques:

• Chromatic Approach: Introducing chords with notes outside the original key, gradually leading towards the new key.

• Pivot Chord: Utilizing a chord that can function in both the old and the new keys. This chord acts as a bridge between the keys.

• Common Chord: A chord shared by both keys. Using this creates a smoother transition.

• Secondary Dominants: Using a dominant chord of a chord other than the tonic of the current key often leads to a modulation.

Effective modulation requires careful planning and execution to avoid jarring transitions. It adds richness and complexity to a piece, creating dramatic shifts in mood and atmosphere. A sudden modulation, for example, can heighten tension, whereas a gradual one can create a more peaceful transition.

Analyzing musical form involves identifying the sections of a piece and their relationships to each other. Several common forms exist, each with its own structure and characteristics.

• Sonata Form: Typically consists of three sections: Exposition (presenting the main themes), Development (exploring the themes in different keys and contexts), and Recapitulation (returning to the main themes in the tonic key). Analyzing sonata form requires identifying thematic material, key changes, and the overall narrative arc.

• Rondo Form: Characterized by a recurring main theme (A) interspersed with contrasting themes (B, C, etc.). The basic structure might be A-B-A-C-A. Analyzing rondo form involves recognizing the return of the main theme and the characteristics of the contrasting sections.

• Theme and Variations: This form presents a main theme, followed by variations that transform it rhythmically, melodically, or harmonically. Analyzing theme and variations requires identifying the main theme and describing how each variation alters it.

Analyzing musical form is essential for understanding a composer’s creative process and for appreciating the overall structure and design of a musical work. It involves listening for recurring themes, patterns, and key changes, as well as identifying the relationships between different sections.

Rhythmic notation captures the duration and timing of musical notes. Various techniques exist to represent rhythm effectively:

• Note Values: Whole notes, half notes, quarter notes, eighth notes, etc., represent different durations, with whole notes being the longest and sixteenth notes the shortest in common usage.

• Rests: Represent silence and correspond to the note values. A whole rest represents a whole note’s worth of silence, and so on.

• Time Signatures: Indicate the number of beats per measure (top number) and the type of note that receives one beat (bottom number). For instance, 4/4 signifies four quarter notes per measure.

• Tuplets: Used to group notes that are played in a different ratio than the usual time signature. For example, a triplet means three notes are played in the time of two.

• Dots and Ties: A dot after a note adds half its value, while a tie connects two notes of the same pitch to be played as one longer note.

Understanding these techniques is fundamental for reading and writing music accurately. Precise rhythmic notation ensures that musicians can interpret and play music correctly. Inaccurate notation can lead to serious performance errors.

Intervals measure the distance between two notes. The terms ‘perfect,’ ‘imperfect,’ and ‘augmented’ describe the quality of the interval, relating to their consonance and dissonance.

• Perfect Intervals: These intervals are considered highly consonant and stable, producing a strong sense of resolution. They include the perfect unison, perfect octave, perfect fifth, and perfect fourth. These intervals always have the same number of half steps regardless of their location on the keyboard.

• Imperfect Intervals: These intervals are less stable than perfect intervals and can be major or minor. Major intervals have a slightly wider distance than minor intervals. The imperfect intervals are the major and minor seconds, thirds, sixths, and sevenths.

• Augmented Intervals: These are created by increasing a major or perfect interval by a half step. They are generally dissonant and unstable, creating tension that often resolves to a perfect or major interval. A similar concept exists with diminished intervals which are smaller than minor or perfect intervals.

Understanding interval quality is vital for analyzing harmony, composing melodies, and understanding the sound of chords. The choice of interval influences the overall character and tension of a musical passage.

Identifying vocal ranges involves understanding the tessitura, or comfortable singing range, of a voice. We categorize voices into different types based on their pitch and timbre. The most common system uses classifications like Soprano, Mezzo-soprano, Alto (for female voices) and Tenor, Baritone, Bass (for male voices). Each of these categories has sub-categories, like high soprano, lyric soprano, dramatic soprano, etc., further refining the vocal range and characteristics.

Sopranos typically sing the highest notes, often spanning from roughly C4 to C6. Mezzo-sopranos have a middle range, often from A3 to A5. Altos possess the lowest female range, generally from F3 to F5. Similarly, Tenors have a high male range, often from C3 to C5. Baritones cover a mid-male range, typically from G2 to G4, and Basses have the lowest range, often from E2 to E4.

Identifying a specific range involves assessing a singer’s ability to comfortably reach and sustain notes across a spectrum. A skilled vocal coach uses exercises and ear training to determine these parameters, noting both the highest and lowest notes achievable with good tone and control. It is crucial to remember that these are guidelines, and individual voices often fall between categories or exhibit unique characteristics.

Rhythmic patterns are fundamental to defining a musical style’s character. Different genres employ distinct rhythmic structures, impacting groove and feel.

• Classical Music: Often features complex, varied rhythmic patterns based on meter and subdivisions, such as dotted rhythms, syncopation and complex polyrhythms.
• Jazz: Emphasizes swing feel, a characteristic rhythmic lilt where eighth notes are played with an unequal duration (long-short-long-short), and syncopation is prevalent.
• Rock: Frequently uses strong, driving rhythms, usually in 4/4 time, often employing straight eighth notes or dotted rhythms. Simple, repetitive patterns build up energy.
• Latin Music: Boasts a vast array of rhythmic styles; Salsa, for instance, utilizes complex polyrhythms and syncopation, with clave rhythms as a structural foundation. Bossa Nova utilizes a more relaxed and flowing rhythm.
• African Music: Often features polyrhythms, where multiple rhythmic patterns occur simultaneously, creating complex and layered soundscapes. Call and response patterns are also very common.

Understanding these patterns is crucial for musicians, from composers creating original music to performers interpreting existing works. The rhythmic foundation influences not just the instrumental parts but the overall phrasing and interpretation of the music.

Tonality refers to the organization of pitches around a central tone, called the tonic. It’s the framework that gives a piece of music a sense of ‘home’ or key. In Western music, this is typically established through a major or minor scale, defining the characteristic intervals and harmonies used within a piece.

Think of the tonic as the ‘home base’ for a musical piece. All other notes relate to this tonic, creating a sense of direction and resolution. Major tonality often sounds bright and cheerful, while minor tonality tends to sound more somber or reflective. However, these are generalizations, and composers use tonality in incredibly diverse and nuanced ways to create emotional effect.

For example, a piece in C major will primarily use the notes of the C major scale (C-D-E-F-G-A-B-C). The chord built on C (C major) will act as the strongest harmonic point of reference and will often resolve back to this chord at the end of a phrase or section. Chromaticism, where notes outside of the key are used, creates tension and dissonance that is often resolved back to the tonic, strengthening the tonal center.

Melody and harmony are intrinsically linked; they work together to create musical structure and expression. Melody is the horizontal aspect of music – the succession of individual notes that form a tune. Harmony is the vertical aspect – the simultaneous combination of notes (chords) that accompany the melody. The melody provides the main thematic idea, while harmony supports and enhances it.

Harmony often emphasizes or contrasts with the melody, creating emotional impact. For example, a major chord progression might underpin a joyful melody, while a minor progression supports a melancholic one. Harmony can add depth, color, and tension to a melody, making it richer and more expressive. Dissonant harmonies can create suspense, leading the listener towards resolution in the melody. The relationship between melody and harmony is dynamic; it’s a conversation between the two elements, continuously pushing and pulling the listener’s emotions.

A simple example is the nursery rhyme ‘Twinkle Twinkle Little Star’. The melody is simple and repetitive, but it is supported by a harmonic progression (often implied, but could be explicitly played) that provides a sense of stability and completeness. The harmonic framework strengthens the melody’s impact.

Chord inversions alter the voicing of a chord while maintaining the same notes. They change the bass note, thus affecting the harmonic color and bassline. This offers composers and arrangers more versatility in creating varied textures and avoiding monotonous bass lines.

Consider a C major chord (C-E-G). The root position is C-E-G with C as the bass note. The first inversion is E-G-C with E in the bass, and the second inversion is G-C-E with G in the bass. These inversions all contain the same notes but have distinctly different sounds.

Inversions are widely used in music to create smooth transitions between chords, to better fit the vocal range, and to create a more interesting bassline. For example, using the first inversion of a chord might provide a smoother transition to the following chord if the bassline needs to move up chromatically or diatonically. They add complexity and flexibility to harmonic structures in both simple and complex musical compositions.

Ear training is invaluable for improving sight-reading. The ability to aurally recognize intervals, chords, and rhythms significantly enhances the process of translating written music to performance. By training your ear, you essentially build a direct connection between the visual representation of music (the notes on the page) and its aural realization (what it sounds like).

Here’s how ear training helps sight-reading:

• Interval Recognition: Recognizing intervals aurally helps you quickly grasp melodic leaps and direction.
• Chord Recognition: Identifying chord qualities (major, minor, diminished, augmented) directly from sound allows for more nuanced interpretation of harmonic progressions.
• Rhythmic Internalization: Developing rhythmic accuracy through ear training enables accurate execution of complex rhythmic patterns in sight-reading.
• Key Recognition: Developing the ability to hear the key of a piece assists in understanding the tonal center and harmonic context.

Regular ear training exercises, such as interval dictation, chord identification, and melodic dictation, are essential. This practice strengthens the neural pathways between hearing and sight-reading, improving fluency and accuracy. The more familiar your ear is with the sounds of music, the faster and more confidently you’ll be able to translate the written score to a performance.

Dynamics are crucial for conveying emotion and shaping the narrative in music. They refer to the variations in loudness and softness, typically indicated using Italian terms like piano (soft), forte (loud), crescendo (gradually getting louder), and diminuendo (gradually getting softer). Dynamic markings guide the performer in creating expressive nuances and avoiding monotony.

Effective use of dynamics involves understanding how changes in volume impact the listener’s experience. A sudden forte can create a sense of drama or surprise, while a gradual crescendo can build tension. A delicate piano passage can evoke intimacy or vulnerability. The contrast between loud and soft passages often provides a richer and more engaging listening experience. Subtle variations in dynamics are especially important in creating expressive phrasing, helping shape musical lines and conveying emotions.

Consider a romantic-era piece; a pianissimo passage might evoke introspection, whereas a subsequent fortissimo could express passionate release. Mastering dynamics is about understanding how to use volume to express emotions and to craft a captivating musical journey for the audience.

Understanding music theory is the bedrock of skillful improvisation. It provides the framework – the rules of the game, if you will – within which you can creatively express yourself. Without theoretical understanding, improvisation becomes random note-picking; with it, it becomes a fluent conversation.

For instance, knowing scales and chords allows you to instantly generate melodic ideas that fit harmonically within a given key. Understanding chord progressions enables you to anticipate where the harmony is likely to go, allowing for smoother transitions and more compelling musical phrasing. Knowing about modes opens up a wider palette of melodic possibilities beyond the standard major and minor scales.

Imagine trying to improvise a jazz solo without knowing the ii-V-I progression. You’d likely struggle to create a cohesive and satisfying line. However, with that knowledge, you can confidently build your solo around that fundamental structure, adding chromatic passing tones, appoggiaturas, and other embellishments to spice things up. This theoretical understanding frees you from simply reacting to the chords and allows for proactive, expressive musical creation.

Musical arrangement involves shaping and structuring a composition to enhance its impact and emotional arc. Several common techniques are employed:

• Form and Structure: Using established forms like verse-chorus, AABA, sonata form, or creating unique structures to guide the listener’s experience. For example, a dramatic build-up could lead to a powerful climax.
• Instrumentation and Orchestration: Selecting and arranging instruments to create specific timbres, textures, and dynamic ranges. A string section might create a lush backdrop, while horns could provide a powerful punch.
• Harmony and Counterpoint: Using chords and countermelodies to create harmonic richness and interest. This includes techniques such as chord inversions, suspensions, and passing chords to add complexity and depth.
• Melody and Rhythm: Crafting memorable and effective melodies, using rhythmic variations to create drive and interest. Think of how a simple rhythmic motif can be developed and transformed throughout a piece.
• Dynamics and Articulation: Controlling volume and phrasing to shape the emotional expression. Careful use of crescendo, diminuendo, staccato, and legato can significantly impact the overall feel.
• Tempo and Groove: Setting the tempo to fit the mood and using rhythmic patterns to create a groove that engages the listener. A driving rock beat is vastly different from a slow, deliberate waltz.

Mastering these techniques allows arrangers to transform raw musical ideas into polished, emotionally resonant compositions.

Analyzing the structure of a complex piece involves a systematic approach. First, I’d listen several times, identifying recurring musical ideas (motifs, themes) and how they relate to each other. Then, I’d map out the formal structure – for example, identifying sections like introduction, exposition, development, recapitulation, coda (common in sonata form) or verse, chorus, bridge (common in popular music).

I’d pay close attention to harmonic changes. Where do the key changes occur? What are the dominant and tonic keys? What chord progressions are used? Analyzing the melodic contours and rhythmic patterns helps to understand the musical narrative. How does the melody evolve? Are there any significant rhythmic variations? Finally, I would examine the instrumentation and dynamics, observing how they contribute to the overall structure and emotional impact. Is there a gradual build-up, or a series of contrasting sections? How are different instruments used to create texture and color?

This process is like solving a puzzle, piecing together different musical elements to understand the overall design. Software like Sibelius or Finale can assist in the process by allowing for visual representation of the piece and its structure.

Transcribing music from audio requires a combination of listening skills, music theory knowledge, and technological tools. My process begins with multiple listens to identify the key, tempo, and overall structure. Then, I’ll use transcription software, such as Antares Auto-Tune or Melodyne, to assist in identifying pitch and rhythm.

I start by transcribing the main melody, focusing on pitch accuracy. Then, I proceed to the harmony, identifying the chord progressions. Once the basic structure is laid out, I focus on adding rhythmic details, dynamics, and articulation. Throughout the process, I rely heavily on my ear training skills, checking my work constantly to ensure accuracy. I frequently slow down the audio to focus on individual notes and phrases. This process often involves iterative refinement, continually checking and adjusting my transcription until it accurately reflects the original recording. A good understanding of musical notation is essential for writing down the transcribed music efficiently.

Absolute pitch (AP) and relative pitch (RP) are two distinct abilities related to pitch perception. Absolute pitch is the ability to identify or reproduce any note without a reference pitch. Someone with AP can hear a note and immediately name it (e.g., ‘that’s an A-flat’). This is a rare ability.

Relative pitch, on the other hand, is the ability to identify or reproduce intervals or melodic relationships between notes. Someone with well-developed RP can hear a melody and understand the intervals between notes, even if they don’t know the absolute pitch of any of them. This is a much more common and learnable skill, crucial for musicians of all levels. Think of it like this: AP is knowing the name of every single person in a room, while RP is knowing who’s related to whom.

Musical context is paramount in aural analysis. It’s impossible to accurately interpret a musical passage without understanding its surrounding elements. This context includes the style, genre, historical period, and the overall structure of the piece.

For example, a dissonant chord might sound jarring out of context, yet be perfectly acceptable, even expected, within the framework of a specific style, such as atonal music or some forms of jazz. Similarly, a particular melodic phrase could have different interpretations depending on whether it’s presented in the exposition or development section of a sonata form. Analyzing phrasing, dynamics, and articulation within its overall context helps unlock its deeper meaning.

Ignoring the context can lead to misinterpretations. To illustrate, a simple chord progression in a pop song might sound simplistic, but within the context of a larger work, it could have a specific role in serving a particular emotional purpose within the narrative of the composition.

Sight-singing unfamiliar music requires a coordinated effort of several skills. First, I’d quickly scan the music to grasp the key, time signature, and overall range. Then, I’d analyze the melody, looking for patterns and leaps. I’d mentally solmize the melody (naming the notes using ‘do-re-mi’), breaking it into manageable chunks.

I’d focus on rhythmic accuracy, carefully paying attention to note durations and rests. I’d also consider the harmonic context, trying to understand how the melody fits with the underlying chords. Before attempting to sing the entire piece, I’d practice small sections, building confidence and accuracy. Finally, I’d ensure proper breath support and vocal technique, which enhances vocal quality and endurance. Regular practice with sight-singing exercises greatly improves this skill, which is akin to reading and understanding a foreign language fluently.